LRG training notes for facilitators

LRG training notes for facilitators: Some helpful reminders

Facilitator and trainer options
1.1 Judicial/peer facilitator
1.2 Resource facilitator
1.3 Community-based facilitator
Appropriate attitudes for trainers of adults
Preparation
3.1 Content
3.2 Visual aids/training materials
3.3 Venue
Conducting a session
4.1 Introducing the session
4.2 Concluding the session
4.3 Running the session
4.4 Presenting a lecture
4.5 Joint facilitating
Communicating
5.1 Verbal
5.2 Non-verbal
5.3 Group dynamics
The learning environment
6.1 Room layout
6.2 Management of time
Use of visual/training materials
7.1 Flipcharts
7.2 Overhead projector
7.3 Use of manual/handouts
Post-workshop follow-up
Adult learners: the experiential method of teaching and learning
9.1 An experiential model
9.2 Glossary of terms used in experiential training

This reading is not a primer of training skills. It is instead a compendium of notes, hints and guidelines, based on many of the programmes that the Law, Race and Gender Research Unit (LRG) has presented in conjunction with Justice College, the official judicial training institute of the Department of Justice and Constitutional Development. These training notes include pointers on how to improve different aspects of training presentation, as well as some of the premises on which the training is based. Notes on experiential learning at the end of the appendix focus on the special approach required for adult learners.

1. Facilitator and trainer options

On all LRG courses there are a number of facilitators/trainers. Some of them have a legal background; others provide different insights into the issues under discussion. Trainers fall into the following categories:

1.1 Judicial/peer facilitator

One of the most successful forms of facilitation is peer facilitation: participants approve of being taught by someone with a similar professional framework, and who may have first-hand experiences of the issues under discussion. It is therefore crucially important that judicial officers facilitate at least part of the programme.

1.2 Resource facilitator

The programme also needs a resource facilitator, typically a practitioner or researcher who has an in-depth understanding of the issues at hand. He or she may be a specialist legal practitioner, a medical practitioner (for example, in situations where HIV/Aids is a topic), or a social worker (for domestic-related issues).

1.3 Community-based facilitator

In many LRG programmes, when appropriate, a community-based facilitator enables members of the grassroots community to interact directly with judicial officers. He or she could be a professional working in the community, but not necessarily officially qualified. What is important is that this facilitator is active in community-based initiatives and organisations, since this interface is often one of the most crucial ways for understanding social context issues. When this aspect is relevant, it is strongly recommended that suitable people are sought to provide variety, the specialised knowledge required, and different perceptions and insights.

2. Appropriate attitudes for trainers of adults

Trainers should be aware of and respond to their learners’ emotional and physical comfort so that they can create an informal, non-threatening learning environment. These attitudes show non-verbally in the trainers’ facial expressions, voice, and arm movements. The trainer should approach the task with the following in mind:

Consider that adults do not all learn in the same way. For example, some need to think about issues for a while before responding; others need to discuss them with colleagues; yet others need visual images to help them learn.
Incorporate and show respect for previous knowledge and experience.
Focus on relevant and realistic problems with which the learners have experience in their professional lives.
Promote active mental and physical participation by the learners through discussions, exercises and games.
Think of the learners as your peers to whom you wish to impart knowledge or to help learn new skills or attitudes. They should be comfortable and cared for during this process, and, if possible, enjoy themselves.
Your approach should be relaxed, helpful, caring and non-judgemental.
Avoid a “school teacher” or patronising attitude, or an apologetic or diffident approach.

3. Preparation

3.1 Content

Define your objectives for the session, that is, the results you wish to achieve or the behaviours you want learners to exhibit.
Consider the backgrounds and all other characteristics of the learners.
Plan the process of the session: introduction, the stages of the process, conclusion.
Prepare facilitation notes for yourself. Include in these the page numbers of each activity and also of relevant readings.

3.2 Visual aids/training materials

Choose appropriate materials for the target group and their needs.
See that you have at hand everything that you will need. For example, check that flipchart pens work, the overhead projector is plugged in and focussed, and that flipchart paper is available.
Check that handouts are properly collated.

3.3 Venue

Set up the room with appropriate seating and other comfort facilities for your session; for example, appropriate light, heating or cooling, water and glasses, wastepaper bins and freedom from clutter.
If possible, practice in the venue beforehand: check visibility of visual aids, lights etc.

4. Conducting a session

4.1 Introducing the session

Introduce yourself and other facilitators.
Unless surprise elements are built into the session, clearly announce the objectives, scope, administrative arrangements, prohibitions etc.
Generate interest and show enthusiasm. Warmth in your tone is a positive motivating factor.

4.2 Concluding the session

Do not end a session without a conclusion. This may be as simple as a summary of what has happened, or pointers to the next module.
Use a self-reflection exercise as the preferable conclusion to a training session. For further details, see the module in this manual dedicated to self-reflection.

4.3 Running the session

Communicate while being aware of your verbal and nonverbal messages (see sections 5.1 and 5.2 below).
Be very careful about how you give instructions for an activity. It is usually inappropriate to give the entire process at the beginning of the activity. Participants get confused if they have to remember all at once at the beginning what they have to do at a later stage of the process.
Give the instructions for each stage of the activity only when that stage occurs. If necessary, repeat instructions to help participants to understand what is required of them .
Integrate your use of visual aids and distribution of handouts by simultaneously presenting these with the relevant instructions.
Do not distribute or refer to handouts before they are needed.

4.4 Presenting a lecture

Start with a positive approach. Establish contact with participants; prepare them by telling them what you will do and why it will be interesting for them to know.
Increase acceptability of content by reminding participants why it is important for them. Use humour and offer personal points of view about the material.
Uncomplicated visual aids are helpful, as are concrete, specific personal examples with which participants can identify. See section 7 below.
Interrupting the lecture from time to time by initiating brief activities or by soliciting examples from the participants varies the pace of the presentation. Some of the lectures in the manual include activities such as these.
Variety in the voice and eye contact helps to keep attention and interest.
Except for direct quotations, lectures should not be read. Reading reduces the personal impact and increases the boredom factor.

4.5 Joint facilitating

Clarity is needed on different roles if more than one facilitator is involved in a module. Establish who introduces, wraps up, handles physical space and gives instructions.
Avoid private messages, such as glances or notes, between facilitators. These could be interpreted as collusion or superior behaviour.
Spend time beforehand discussing with your co-facilitator how you are going to work together, the process, including the instructions you will give and the timing.

5. Communicating

5.1 Verbal

Use encouraging remarks. Do not put people on the spot by randomly calling on specific people to give answers. Rather go round the group in order so that people expect to be called. Give clear instructions; appropriately reveal your own feelings or opinions; use natural humour.
Refer to participants’ good questions, and positive or relevant responses from previous occasions. Mention the name of the person responsible to show that you value contributions and take them seriously.
Avoid a one-on-one discussions with a participant that is not relevant to the others in the group.
Stop side conversations of participants from taking place, either by nonverbal means, such as holding up your hand, or eye contact, or asking politely for silence. Do not scold.
Watch for flagging attention, restlessness and people nodding off. Give a short break if possible when necessary.
When the group, as a whole, is asked during an exercise for opinions or judgements, allow individuals to write these down privately first, so that each person has something concrete in front of him or her.
Do not ask too many questions at one time. This becomes confusing.
If questions are known, have them written up on a flipchart sheet so that participants can answer them with a visual reminder.
Avoid general questions such as “Any comments on that?” Rather be specific. Do not over-emphasise the process, for example, by saying “We’re running out of time”.

5.2 Non-verbal

Voice

Everyone should be able to hear everything that the trainer says.
Vocal variety is crucial to maintain interest.
Make sure a participant speaker is heard and seen by all. If necessary ask the participant to raise his or her voice or to stand in front of the group.
A faster pace maintains energy. A very slow delivery can create monotony and boredom.

Body language

Avoid repetitive body movements such as, fiddling with a pen or anything else, swinging one’s legs, distracting arm movements, touching one’s face and so on.
Face participants full-on; turn if necessary to keep all members of the group within your eye range.
Move among participants at relevant opportunities, so that you are not rooted at a distance from them in front of the room.
Avoid standing behind a table or lectern, or at least, for any length of time. Physical barriers such as these create psychological distance between trainer and learner.

Eye contact

Include everyone within your eye range, even if this means moving your body.

Proxemics (use of space)

People do not work well in crowded environments.
Decide if it is helpful or not to have participants sitting at desks or tables in the room. If not, see that there are clipboards for participants to press on. Also see that there are tables at the back or side of the room, for glasses and water, paper and so on.
Rooms should have as much space as possible.
A “school room” set-up, with participants in straight rows facing the trainer, is not conducive to active participation and effective adult learning. Circles, semi-circles, herringbone patterns and other less formal arrangements for chairs and tables are better.

5.3 Group dynamics

People generally feel more comfortable if a group decision, rather than an individual one, is presented to the larger group. This prevents individuals feeling foolish or conspicuous; it also encourages fuller discussion.
Allow groups to come to their own conclusions. Do not interrupt their discussions with your opinions. Give feedback afterwards.
Groups “own” both their decisions, as well as the space they have been using. Allow a group to give an answer from their space, or if participants return to a plenary set-up, with members of a group sitting cohesively together.
Vary physical settings, numbers in a group, and types of problems given to groups.
Move people around every now and then so that they are sitting next to different people. This creates greater diversity, and prevents participants from speaking to the same people all the time.
Try to avoid plenary reportback with large numbers, such as 30 people, as this makes it difficult for participants to concentrate. Rather use two or three groups facilitated by different facilitators. T
he facilitator is not part of a group, and should generally not interfere with its interactions, but should initiate its activities and lead the process ,for example, seating arrangements, timing, instructions.
It is preferable to do some debriefing and allow private group debriefing as well before moving back into plenary for general discussion.
See that different people have a chance to do reportbacks. Tell participants at the beginning of a course that everyone is going to have a chance to speak at some time. This avoids a situation where particular group members dominate.
Icebreakers should have some learning application besides relaxing people.

6. The learning environment

There should be few distractions and a peaceful atmosphere. You may need to make regular requests for cellphones to be switched off and for people to avoid side conversations.
Use of outside areas for group discussions can be pleasant for participants, but often create distractions or people napping instead of concentrating. Use outside areas only for variety during less important activities.
Before the next session’s proceedings are started, and after tea or lunch breaks, or on the next day, re-set and tidy the room. Place appropriate flipchart sheets on the walls. This starts the session on a good footing.

6.1 Room layout

Chairs should be placed so that everyone can see the facilitator and any visual aids. If possible, participants should be able to see each other as well.
Make the room as comfortable as possible: check the lighting, sun control and air flow.
Natural light is best for comfort over long periods of time. Curtains or blinds should be adjusted for appropriate light and temperature.
A free flow of air is very important for concentration. A cooler temperature is preferable to one that is too hot.
Provide water and glasses within easy reach. Tidy the room frequently: remove extra chairs, tables, dirty cups, paper scraps and so on.
Remove distracting material from previous sessions.

6.2 Management of time

Watch when people start getting restless or begin going to toilets too frequently. This usually signifies the time for a short break. One-and-ahalf hours is the maximum length of time to keep adult learners sitting during one activity.
Do not mention being rushed for time; this creates stress.

7. Use of visual/training aids

7.1 Flipcharts

Writing on flipcharts should be clear and bold: green and yellow are not good colours to see easily.
Use participants’ words, but in summary, wherever possible when recording points on the flipchart.
Write answers up in logical categories; that is, create headings under which comments are posted.
Acknowledge key issues which participants raise by writing these down on flipchart sheets, as visible cumulative minutes of the workshop. This should be done during and after separate activities. Write down learning points only, and not necessarily individual points of view.
Pin up a separate sheet for “Action Plans” as these are suggested during the workshop.
As part of ongoing communication with participants, these records should be sent to them after the workshop.

7.2 Overhead projector

Check that projection is visible to all: if necessary, lift projection higher and stand back to avoid blocking the projection on the screen.
Use a sharp-ended pointer, rather than fingers, for pointing on the projector.
Decoration for its own sake on a transparency should be avoided. This confuses the message at hand.
Transparencies should have minimal key points on each. Size of print should be large and clear; photocopies from books are inappropriate; diagrams and flowcharts work well; use of colour heightens the visual impact.

7.3 Use of manual/handouts

Only refer to a relevant page in the manual when you wish participants to look at it.
Distribute all handouts, for example, course evaluation forms, only when they are to be used. This prevents people from looking at them when they should be concentrating on something else.
If you are using a number of handouts during a training programme, it is a good idea to compile them into a workbook with numbered pages, so that sections do not get mixed up. This also provides participants with a helpful record of the programme. You should include blank pages for notes.

8. Post-workshop follow-up

All good training should produce benefits to the individual at the level of knowledge, attitudes and skills. These benefits should show in the areas of performance, personal growth and development and the meeting of needs, both personal and organisational.
Trainers should have a system to ensure the achievement of training objectives. The following questions need to be answered:
1. What were the set objectives?
2. Has the training achieved its objectives?
3. Did the trainees gain the knowledge or skills they were taught?
4. Was learning transferred to the workplace?
Evaluate training effectiveness through a combination of the following methods:
1. Trainee action plans
2. Post-course questionnaires
3. Follow-up interviews
4. On-the-job observations
5. Supervised special projects
6. Regular performance appraisals

9. Adult learners: the experiential method of teaching and learning*

An experiential approach is the preferred method of learning for adults. It primarily stresses active participant involvement versus passive receptivity in order to internalise the learning more effectively. There is a glossary at the end of this section to explain many of the terms used.

Figure 1 below classifies training design components in order, according to the extent to which they incorporate learner involvement. The least involving intervention is reading, in which learners are in a reactive mode; the most involving intervention is the intensive growth group, in which learners are encouraged to be proactive, to take responsibility for their own learning. In between these two extremes are activities that range from lectures to structured experiences.

All these forms of activities are used in this manual, except for the intensive growth group (although this may occur unintentionally), as it needs experienced facilitators with psychological insights to oversee it. However, planned group experiences and discussions often achieve the same effects.

The experiential lecture is more involving than the traditional lecture because it incorporates activities on the part of the audience. There will be brief interactions among participants during the delivery of the content. Lectures are one of the simplest ways of providing additional learning for participants. These should be simple and direct with an emphasis on clarity and ease of presentation. Visual enhancement, such as slides, is helpful. Lectures in this training are not intended to be comprehensive or technical statements of theoretical positions. Participants should be referred to relevant readings for the latter.
Discussion is a time-honoured teaching intervention that has been extended and refined in participation training.
The case-study method is closely related to role playing in which a case is acted out in a semi-structured format.
Instrumentation involves learners in self-assessment.
Structured experiences stress high participation and processing of data generated during interactive activities.
Intensive growth groups exist in many forms. They are characterised by high learner involvement and interaction. The data for learning come from life experiences and immediate reactions from group members. Participants are expected to integrate their learning into new self-concepts and behaviours.

9.1 An experiential model

Experiential learning occurs when a person engages in some activity, such as analysing a case study, looks back at the activity critically, abstracts useful insights from the analysis, and puts the result to work. This process is experienced spontaneously in ordinary living; it is an inductive process, proceeding from observation, rather than from an a priori truth, as in a deductive process.

The learning process has the following stages, which are presented visually in Figure 2 below:

Participating in and experiencing the activity
Reporting: sharing reactions to the activity
Processing and reflecting: discussing patterns of behaviour and dynamics
Generalising: deducing or eliciting principles in the “real world”
Applying: planning more effective behaviour in the “real world”

Experiencing
The initial stage is the data generating part of the structured experience. If the process stops after this stage, all learning is left to chance. Almost any activity that involves self-assessment or interpersonal interaction can be used as the "doing" part of experiential learning. These activities can be carried out by individuals, dyads (groups of two), triads (groups of three), small groups etc. The learning objectives would dictate both the activity and the appropriate groupings.

Some trainers spend an enormous amount of energy planning the activity but leave out the examination of it. As a consequence, learning may not be facilitated. It is apparent that the next four steps of the experiential learning cycle are even more important than the experiencing phase.

Reporting
The second stage of the cycle concerns sharing what was observed or felt during the experience though free but focussed discussion. The intent here is to make available to the group the experience of each individual. A number of methods help to facilitate the declaring of reactions and observations:

Recording data during the experiencing stage
Whips: quick free-association go-arounds on various topics concerning the activity
Subgroup sharing: generating lists of what happened
Total group input on flipcharts

Processing
This is the pivotal step in experiential learning. It is the systematic examination of commonly shared experience. This “talking through” part of the cycle is critical if useful learning is to take place. Participants should be led to look at what happened in terms of dynamics but not in terms of “meaning”. Some selected techniques for this stage are:

Process observers
Thematic discussion
Questionnaires
Interpersonal feedback

Generalising
Participants are led to focus their awareness on situations in their personal and work lives that are similar to those in the activity they have experienced. If the training is to transfer to the “real world”, it is important to make this extrapolation through generalising. It is useful in this stage for the group interaction to result in a series of “products”, visual as well as oral , for example report-backs by spokespersons or learning points written up on flipcharts. This strategy helps to facilitate vicarious learning among participants. The facilitator needs to remain non-evaluative about what is learnt. Participants sometimes anticipate the final stage of the learning cycle and need to be kept on track as regards clarifying what has been learnt before discussing what changes are needed.

Applying
The final stage is the purpose for which the whole experience is designed. The trainer helps participants apply generalisations to actual situations. It is critical that attention be given to designing ways for individuals and groups to use the learning generated during the structured experience to plan more effective behaviour which they would like to experiment with and/or change in their professional lives. Individuals are more likely to implement their planned applications if they share them with others. Several practices can be included:

Small groups: planning and discussing changes with each other
Goal setting: writing applications according to goal criteria for improved performance
Contracting: making explicit promises to one another about future applications in the workplace
Practice sessions; role-playing courtroom situations to attempt changed behaviors.

The actual application of behaviour becomes a new experience and begins the cycle again.

9.2 Glossary of terms used in experiential training

Activity	A design for participation to create a common experience for study and discussion
Case study	Group discussion and problem-solving from material about an actual or hypothetical situation
Contracting	Participants make promises about what they will apply in their future professional lives based on what has been learnt on the programme. This can be in the form of a contract with oneself by writing down these new behaviours, presenting them to the group, or discussion in small groups.
Deductive	A learning situation that begins with “truth” and proceeds to its logical conclusions
Didactic	A teaching approach in which an expert imparts information
Experiential	An approach to learning in which participants in an activity learn through reflection on the activity itself
Inductive	A learning method that is based on the discovery of “truth” from the examination of experience
Intensive growth group	Unstructured experience where a group involves itself in a therapeutic-type interaction
Instrument	Paper-and-pencil exercise use to rate oneself according to a pre-designed system, for example, assessment scale or opinion. This is a non-clinical device used to focus on particular behavioral science concepts. It provides a set of data by which participants can explore themselves and others in the relative safety of a training activity.
Instrumentation	The use of instruments in training or research
Processing	Group discussion of the results of a learning activity
Role playing	A design for learning in which participants act out a situation through assigned parts that they play spontaneously
Structured experience	A design for inductive learning through the implementation of the experiential learning cycle; focusses on particular learning goals

* The 1985 Annual: Developing Human Resources. Leonard D. Goodstein and J. William Pfeiffer, Editors. San Diego, California; University Assoicates, 1985.